The Origins of Theater
In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw.The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual.The processperceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, andit searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires,the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals
speculation n 猜测
envision 想象
appear to 似乎 undesirable occurrence attribute favor
attribute 把sth归因于sth // 把sth归咎于sth
perceive 察觉 把…看作
描述戏剧的起源必须主要的依赖于猜测。最广为接受的理论想象戏剧出现于神话和宗教仪式。这个过程被总结的非常简短。社会意识到了一种似乎可以影响或控制食物供给和社会康乐的力量。因为对于自然时间调姐很少，这把一些好的或不太好的发生的事情归咎于超自然或魔法的力量。他们尽力去方法来赢得这种力量的青睐。这群人重复，提炼，规范这些活动到固定的庆祝活动和宗教仪式中。
Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual.Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a person becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change.As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns.
aesthetic adj 审美的//美观的
神话故事可能随着仪式而发展。这些神话包括一些代表性的超自然力量。执行者可能穿着特定的服装和面罩去代表神话人物或超自然力量。随着人变得聪明，这些超自然力量和速记的关系可能会改变。人们肯能抛弃或者修改一些仪式。但是这个神话可能会作为人们的口头传统留存下来，甚至可能在某种情况下被实现。这个过程的第一步变成了戏剧。娱乐和审美价值可能逐渐被之前的神话和社会担忧所替代
Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being.Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative.Under this theory,relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures.Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person.
Storytelling 讲故事
recalling 回忆
elaborate 详尽阐述
虽然戏剧起源于宗教仪式这个理论在很长时间都是流行的。但是绝不可能是唯一的一个理论。讲故事也已经被题为一个可行的理论。讲述和听故事都是人类快乐的基本元素，一些时间的回忆被详细阐述，通过阐述者的表演和叙述。
A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dancesthat are primarily pantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. Admiration for the performer’s skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realized theatrical performances.
virtuosity。精湛演技
grace 优雅//天恩//大度//宠爱//宽限
最近的一个理论将戏剧看作舞蹈的进化。对于表演者技术，精湛演技和优雅的羡慕被看作为动力。
In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities.
cease 停止//终止
imitative 善于模仿 fantasy fiction
confront 面对//以..对证
学者们也从理论上说明了这种导致人们发展戏剧的驱动力。为什么戏剧发展？为什么在人们停止去实现仪式功能后变得有价值？很多答案跺脚在关于人们内心和基本需求的理论上。一个理论认为人类是天生的模仿者。另一个理论提出人们有幻想的天赋。幻想和错觉允许人们去物化焦虑和恐惧，面对他们，同时填满他们的幻想而不是现实中的希望。戏剧就是一个工具。人们定义和理解他们的世界，从不快乐的现实中逃脱出来。
But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems.For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless，they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness.
instinct 本能//直觉
penchant 爱好 autonomous 自主的//自治的
detached v 分开，使分开 adj 单独的
无论是人们模仿的天赋还是对于幻想本身的爱好都没有导致自主的戏剧。因此额外的解释是非常有必要的。分开人们问题的视角似乎是非常有必要。这种情况的一个标志是戏剧视角。另一个情况是审美感觉的出现。例如一些早期的社会不再认为某些仪式对于社会的安康有着非常必要的作用，然后抛弃他们。尽管如此，他们还是将神话作为他们口头的一个传统，赞赏他们应为他们的艺术价值额不是宗教用处
